The Navajo Nation stands as the largest federally recognized Native American tribe in the United States, representing a vibrant and resilient culture that has thrived in the American Southwest for centuries.
Known to themselves as the Diné, meaning “The People,” the Navajo have created one of North America’s most distinctive and enduring indigenous cultures, spanning vast territories across Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado.
This comprehensive guide explores every aspect of Navajo life, from ancient traditions and sacred ceremonies to modern governance and contemporary challenges.
Whether you’re seeking to understand Navajo history, appreciate their remarkable arts and crafts, learn about their unique language and cultural practices, or gain insight into modern Navajo life, this article provides an authoritative and respectful examination of one of America’s most significant indigenous nations.
The story of the Navajo people encompasses epic migrations, cultural adaptations, periods of tremendous hardship, and remarkable resilience.
From their origins as Athabaskan-speaking peoples who migrated from northern Canada to their establishment as a sovereign nation within the United States, the Navajo have continuously adapted while maintaining their core cultural identity and spiritual connection to their ancestral homeland.
Understanding Navajo culture requires appreciating not just historical achievements but also contemporary realities, ongoing cultural preservation efforts, and how traditional values continue to guide modern Navajo life.
This exploration honors both the depth of Navajo traditions and the dynamic nature of their living culture.
Who Are the Navajo People?
The Diné: Self-Identity and Cultural Foundation
The Navajo people call themselves Diné, a word that simply means “The People” in their native language.
This self-designation reflects a fundamental aspect of Navajo identity: the understanding that they are the original inhabitants of their ancestral homeland, placed there by the Holy People according to their creation stories and spiritual beliefs.
The term “Navajo” itself comes from the Spanish colonial period, derived from the Tewa Pueblo word “navahu’u,” meaning “large area of cultivated lands.”
While this external name has become widely recognized, many prefer to use Diné when referring to themselves, as it carries deeper cultural and spiritual significance rooted in their own linguistic and cultural traditions.
Navajo identity extends far beyond tribal membership to encompass a comprehensive worldview that emphasizes harmony, balance, and proper relationships with all living beings.
The concept of Hózhǫ́—often translated as “beauty,” “harmony,” or “balance”—serves as a guiding principle that influences everything from daily interactions to major life decisions and ceremonial practices.
The matrilineal clan system forms another crucial aspect of Navajo identity, with individuals belonging to their mother’s clan while also being “born for” their father’s clan.
This complex kinship system creates extensive networks of relationships and responsibilities that extend across the entire Navajo Nation, providing social structure and cultural continuity.
Geographic Homeland and the Four Sacred Mountains
The Navajo Nation encompasses approximately 27,413 square miles across the Four Corners region of the American Southwest, making it larger than ten U.S. states.
This vast territory includes portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado, representing one of the largest land holdings of any Native American tribe in the United States.
The boundaries of traditional Navajo homeland are defined by four sacred mountains, each associated with specific colors, directions, and spiritual significance.
Sisnaajini (Blanca Peak) in Colorado represents the east and is associated with white shell and dawn light.
Tsoodzil (Mount Taylor) in New Mexico represents the south and is connected with turquoise and blue sky.
Dook’o’oosłííd (San Francisco Peaks) in Arizona represents the west and is associated with abalone shell and yellow evening light. Dibé Nitsaa (Hesperus Peak) in Colorado represents the north and is connected with jet black and darkness.
These sacred mountains serve not only as geographical markers but as spiritual anchors that define the Diné homeland and provide the foundation for countless ceremonies, prayers, and cultural practices.
The land between these mountains is considered sacred, and the mountains themselves are viewed as living entities that provide protection and guidance to the Navajo people.
The diverse landscape within Navajo territory includes high mesas, deep canyons, desert areas, pine forests, and mountain ranges, creating varied ecosystems that have supported different aspects of traditional Navajo life.
This geographic diversity has influenced everything from settlement patterns and economic activities to ceremonial practices and artistic traditions.
Population and Demographics
The Navajo Nation represents the largest Native American tribe in the United States, with tribal enrollment exceeding 350,000 members.
However, not all enrolled members live on the reservation, with significant Navajo populations residing in urban areas throughout the Southwest and beyond, creating complex patterns of cultural connection and identity maintenance.
The reservation itself is home to approximately 175,000 people, making it one of the most populous reservation areas in the United States.
The population is distributed across more than 100 communities, ranging from small family settlements to larger towns like Window Rock (the capital), Shiprock, Chinle, and Kayenta.
Demographics within the Navajo Nation reflect both traditional cultural patterns and modern realities, with a young population that faces unique challenges in balancing traditional education with contemporary economic opportunities.
Language preservation efforts address the reality that while many older Navajos are fluent in Diné bizaad (the Navajo language), younger generations often have varying levels of fluency.
The geographic distribution of the Navajo population reflects both historical settlement patterns and modern economic factors, with some areas maintaining strong traditional lifestyles while others have adapted more extensively to contemporary American culture and economic systems.
History of the Navajo People
Ancient Origins and Athabaskan Migration
The ancestors of the Navajo people were part of the great Athabaskan migration that brought Northern Athabaskan-speaking peoples from what is now northern Canada and Alaska to various parts of the American Southwest between 1000 and 1500 CE.
This epic journey represents one of the most significant prehistoric migrations in North American history, covering thousands of miles and spanning centuries.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the proto-Navajo groups arrived in the Southwest around 1400-1500 CE, where they encountered established Pueblo peoples who had been living in the region for over a thousand years.
Rather than displacing these populations, the newcomers adapted many Pueblo practices while maintaining their own distinct Athabaskan cultural and linguistic heritage.
The early Navajo lifestyle combined hunting and gathering traditions brought from the north with agricultural practices learned from Pueblo neighbors.
This cultural synthesis created a unique adaptation to Southwestern environments that emphasized flexibility, mobility, and the incorporation of beneficial practices from multiple sources.
Traditional Navajo creation stories provide different accounts of their origins, describing emergence from previous worlds and placement in their current homeland by the Holy People.
These spiritual narratives, while different from archaeological evidence, remain central to Navajo identity and provide essential cultural knowledge about proper relationships with the land and all living beings.
Spanish Colonial Period and Cultural Adaptation
The arrival of Spanish colonizers in the late 16th century brought profound changes to Navajo life, introducing new animals, technologies, and economic systems that the Navajo quickly adapted to their own purposes. The acquisition of sheep and horses proved particularly transformative, reshaping Navajo economy, social organization, and cultural practices.
Sheep herding became central to Navajo life, providing wool for weaving, meat for sustenance, and a form of wealth that could be accumulated and traded.
The development of Navajo weaving traditions, which created some of the world’s most renowned textiles, emerged from this Spanish introduction of sheep and wool-working techniques.
Horses revolutionized Navajo mobility and military capabilities, enabling them to range over vast territories for trade, raiding, and seasonal movements.
The horse became deeply integrated into Navajo culture, appearing in stories, ceremonies, and as a symbol of wealth and prestige.
The Spanish period also brought conflict and cultural pressure, as colonial authorities attempted to control Navajo movements and convert them to Christianity.
However, the Navajo proved remarkably adept at adopting beneficial Spanish innovations while maintaining their core cultural and spiritual practices.
Silversmithing, another art form for which the Navajo became famous, developed during this period through contact with Mexican plateros (silversmiths).
Navajo artisans learned metalworking techniques and adapted them to create distinctive jewelry styles that incorporated traditional symbols and aesthetic preferences.
The Long Walk and Bosque Redondo
The period from 1864 to 1868 represents one of the most traumatic chapters in Navajo history, known as the Long Walk and the imprisonment at Bosque Redondo.
This forced relocation resulted from increasing conflicts between Navajo communities and the U.S. military during the American Civil War period, when military attention focused on controlling Western territories.
Under the command of Colonel Kit Carson, U.S. forces implemented a scorched earth campaign that destroyed Navajo crops, killed livestock, and cut down sacred peach orchards in an effort to force surrender.
Facing starvation and continued military pressure, most Navajo groups eventually surrendered and were forced to walk approximately 300 miles from their homeland to internment at Bosque Redondo in eastern New Mexico.
The Bosque Redondo reservation proved to be a humanitarian disaster, with poor soil, contaminated water, failed crops, and inadequate supplies leading to widespread suffering among the approximately 9,000 Navajo people held there. Disease, malnutrition, and despair took heavy tolls on the population during four years of imprisonment.
The failure of Bosque Redondo eventually led to negotiations for Navajo return to their homeland. The Treaty of 1868, signed on June 1, established the Navajo reservation and allowed the return to traditional territories, though the reservation was significantly smaller than the original homeland.
The Long Walk remains a defining experience in Navajo collective memory, representing both the depths of suffering endured and the resilience that enabled survival and eventual recovery.
Stories of this period continue to be passed down through families and serve as reminders of the importance of protecting Navajo sovereignty and cultural survival.
World War II and the Code Talkers
The Navajo Code Talkers represent one of the most celebrated chapters in modern Navajo history, demonstrating how traditional language and cultural knowledge could serve crucial roles in contemporary contexts.
During World War II, the U.S. Marine Corps recruited Navajo speakers to develop and use an unbreakable code based on the Navajo language for military communications in the Pacific Theater.
The initial group of 29 Navajo recruits developed a sophisticated code that used Navajo words to represent military terms, creating both direct translations and code words that added additional layers of security.
For example, the Navajo word for “turtle” (chééh) represented tanks, while “hummingbird” (da-he-tih-hi) meant fighter plane.
Over 400 Navajo men eventually served as Code Talkers, participating in major Pacific battles including Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.
Their communications were never successfully decoded by enemy forces, providing crucial advantages in military operations and potentially saving thousands of American lives.
The Code Talkers remained classified information for decades after the war, with their contributions only becoming widely known in the 1980s.
This recognition brought national attention to Navajo language and culture while highlighting the ongoing vitality and importance of indigenous languages.
The legacy of the Code Talkers extends beyond military history to represent broader themes of Navajo adaptation, patriotism, and the value of cultural preservation.
Their story demonstrates how traditional knowledge can provide unexpected advantages and how cultural diversity strengthens national security and resilience.
Modern Navajo Nation Development
The establishment of modern Navajo Nation government began with the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, though the Navajo initially rejected this federal framework in favor of maintaining traditional governance systems.
Eventually, the Navajo Tribal Council was established in 1923, evolving over decades into the current three-branch government system.
The discovery of uranium, oil, and coal on Navajo lands brought both opportunities and challenges, providing revenue for tribal programs while also creating environmental and health concerns.
The Navajo Nation has worked to balance resource development with environmental protection and community health, learning from early experiences with mining companies.
Educational development has been a major focus, with the establishment of Diné College (formerly Navajo Community College) in 1968 as the first tribally controlled college in the United States.
This institution has served as a model for indigenous higher education and has played a crucial role in cultural preservation and language revitalization efforts.
Economic diversification efforts have expanded beyond natural resources to include tourism, arts and crafts, gaming, and various business enterprises.
The Navajo Nation has also developed sophisticated legal and governmental institutions that serve as models for other tribal governments.
The Navajo Language: Diné Bizaad
Linguistic Characteristics and Complexity
Diné bizaad, the Navajo language, belongs to the Athabaskan language family and represents one of the most widely spoken indigenous languages in North America, with an estimated 150,000 to 170,000 speakers.
The language’s complexity and unique characteristics have fascinated linguists while serving as a crucial marker of Navajo cultural identity and traditional knowledge.
Navajo is a tonal language, meaning that pitch changes can alter word meanings, making it particularly challenging for non-native speakers to learn.
The language includes four basic tones—high, low, rising, and falling—that must be mastered to communicate effectively.
This tonal quality contributes to the musical nature of Navajo speech and adds layers of meaning to verbal communication.
The verb system in Navajo is extraordinarily complex, with verbs changing form based on the shape, consistency, and number of objects being discussed, the relationship between speaker and listener, and various aspects of time and completion.
A single English verb like “to carry” might have dozens of different Navajo equivalents depending on what is being carried and how.
Navajo grammar also includes an elaborate system of evidentiality, requiring speakers to indicate how they know the information they’re sharing—whether through direct experience, hearsay, assumption, or other means.
This linguistic feature reflects cultural values about truth, knowledge, and the responsibility that comes with speaking.
The language includes sounds that don’t exist in English, including various glottal stops, ejective consonants, and nasal sounds that give Navajo its distinctive phonetic character.
These sound patterns contribute to the language’s effectiveness as a military code and reflect its unique evolutionary development in the Southwestern environment.
Cultural and Spiritual Significance
Diné bizaad serves as much more than a communication tool; it functions as a repository of cultural knowledge, spiritual practice, and traditional wisdom that cannot be fully translated into other languages.
Many Navajo ceremonies, prayers, and traditional stories exist only in Navajo, with specific words and phrases carrying spiritual power and meaning.
Traditional Navajo philosophy and worldview are embedded in the language structure itself, with certain concepts having no equivalent in English or other languages.
The concept of Hózhǫ́, for example, encompasses harmony, beauty, balance, and proper relationships in ways that require extensive explanation in English but are immediately understood by Navajo speakers.
Sacred knowledge, including ceremonial songs, prayers, and traditional stories, is often considered most powerful and authentic when expressed in Navajo.
Many traditional practitioners believe that certain spiritual practices lose their effectiveness when conducted in languages other than Diné bizaad.
The language also serves as a marker of cultural identity and belonging, with fluency often correlating with deeper understanding of traditional values, practices, and ways of thinking.
Language use patterns within families and communities can indicate levels of cultural continuity and adaptation to modern circumstances.
Oral tradition remains central to Navajo culture, with historical knowledge, ceremonial information, and cultural teachings passed down through spoken language rather than written texts.
This oral tradition requires active participation from community members and creates direct personal connections between generations.
Language Preservation and Revitalization Efforts
Contemporary language preservation efforts address the reality that many young Navajos have limited fluency in Diné bizaad, with English often serving as the primary language for education, employment, and daily communication outside traditional contexts.
These efforts combine community-based initiatives with formal educational programs and modern technology.
Immersion schools and language programs have been established throughout the Navajo Nation, providing educational opportunities that use Navajo as the primary language of instruction while also teaching English and standard academic subjects.
These programs aim to create new generations of fluent speakers who can carry the language forward.
Digital initiatives include online dictionaries, language learning apps, social media content in Navajo, and digital archives of traditional stories and songs.
These technological tools make language learning more accessible while creating new contexts for Navajo language use.
Community-based programs encourage intergenerational language transmission by connecting fluent elders with younger community members through mentorship programs, traditional activity groups, and family language initiatives.
These programs recognize that language learning happens most effectively in natural social contexts.
The Navajo Nation government has implemented policies supporting language preservation, including requirements for Navajo language instruction in tribal schools and support for media programming in Navajo.
Radio stations broadcasting in Navajo provide daily opportunities for language exposure and practice.
University programs and linguistic research projects document Navajo language patterns, create learning materials, and train new teachers and language specialists.
These academic efforts complement community-based preservation work while creating resources for future generations.
Navajo Culture and Traditional Beliefs
The Concept of Hózhǫ́ and Harmony
Central to Navajo culture is the concept of Hózhǫ́, a complex philosophical principle that encompasses beauty, harmony, balance, and proper relationships with all aspects of existence.
Hózhǫ́ represents both a state of being and an active practice of maintaining harmony through right thinking, right speech, and right action.
Living in Hózhǫ́ requires maintaining proper relationships not only with other people but also with animals, plants, natural forces, and spiritual beings.
This holistic approach to harmony recognizes that human well-being depends on the health and balance of all interconnected systems in the universe.
The pursuit of Hózhǫ́ influences daily decisions, from how to treat family members and community neighbors to how to interact with the natural environment and conduct economic activities.
It provides a framework for ethical behavior that extends beyond human society to encompass all of creation.
Disruptions to Hózhǫ́ can result from various causes, including improper behavior, exposure to dangerous spiritual forces, or simple accidents of life.
Traditional Navajo ceremonies often focus on restoring harmony and balance when it has been disrupted, using songs, prayers, and ritual actions to bring individuals and communities back into proper relationships.
The concept of Hózhǫ́ also emphasizes the importance of beauty in all aspects of life, from artistic expression and ceremonial objects to daily activities and personal conduct.
This aesthetic dimension recognizes that beauty and harmony are interconnected and that creating beauty contributes to overall well-being.
Clan System and Matrilineal Society
Navajo society is organized around a complex clan system that provides social structure, identity, and behavioral guidelines for all community members.
Each person belongs to their mother’s clan (the clan they are “born to”) while also being “born for” their father’s clan, creating multiple kinship connections that extend throughout Navajo territory.
The matrilineal system means that children inherit clan membership, property rights, and certain ceremonial responsibilities through their mothers’ lineages.
Women often hold significant authority within extended families, making important decisions about resource allocation, child-rearing, and family welfare.
Traditional Navajo clans number over 60, each with its own origin stories, ceremonial responsibilities, and behavioral expectations.
Clan membership determines marriage possibilities, as individuals cannot marry within their own clan or their father’s clan, ensuring genetic diversity and creating extensive networks of relationships across the Navajo Nation.
Extended family groups, often organized around female lineages, traditionally shared resources, labor, and responsibilities for child-rearing and elder care.
These kinship networks provided economic security and social support that enabled survival in the challenging Southwestern environment.
The clan system also provides a framework for conflict resolution, with clan relatives having responsibilities to mediate disputes and support family members in times of need.
Traditional Navajo law often operated through clan relationships rather than centralized authority structures.
The Hogan: Sacred Architecture and Living Space
The traditional Navajo dwelling, known as a hogan, represents far more than simple shelter; it embodies cosmic principles, spiritual beliefs, and cultural values that define proper relationships between humans and the universe.
The hogan’s circular or octagonal shape, east-facing entrance, and specific construction materials reflect deep spiritual significance.
Traditional hogans are constructed with logs, earth, and stone using techniques passed down through generations, with the building process itself involving ceremonial elements and spiritual considerations. The door always faces east to welcome the dawn and maintain proper orientation with cosmic forces.
The interior layout of a hogan follows specific patterns, with designated areas for different activities and family members.
The central fire represents the heart of the home and the connection to sacred forces, while seating arrangements reflect family relationships and social hierarchies.
Many important Navajo ceremonies take place within hogans, with the sacred space providing protection and proper orientation for ritual activities.
The hogan serves as a microcosm of the Navajo universe, with its structure representing the relationship between earth and sky, the four directions, and the sacred mountains.
While many Navajo families now live in modern houses, hogans remain important for ceremonial purposes and as symbols of cultural identity.
Some families maintain both modern homes and traditional hogans, using each for different purposes and occasions.
Sacred Mountains and Directional Symbolism
The four sacred mountains that define Navajo homeland serve as more than geographical markers; they function as spiritual anchors that provide protection, guidance, and connection to the Holy People who placed the Diné in their current homeland.
Each mountain is associated with specific colors, gemstones, sacred beings, and ceremonial significance.
Sisnaajini (Blanca Peak) in the east is associated with white shell, dawn light, and new beginnings. This direction represents birth, youth, and the start of each day’s journey. Many Navajo prayers and ceremonies begin by acknowledging the east and the blessings it brings.
Tsoodzil (Mount Taylor) in the south is connected with turquoise, the color blue, and the time of day when the sun is strongest.
The south represents maturity, strength, and the productive period of life when individuals contribute most to their communities.
Dook’o’oosłííd (San Francisco Peaks) in the west is associated with abalone shell, yellow evening light, and the completion of daily activities.
The west represents old age, wisdom, and the transition toward spiritual understanding that comes with life experience.
Dibé Nitsaa (Hesperus Peak) in the north is connected with jet black, the color of night, and the time of rest and reflection.
The north represents the spiritual realm, the place where traditional knowledge is preserved and passed on to future generations.
This directional symbolism influences everything from the construction of hogans and the conduct of ceremonies to the organization of artistic designs and the structure of traditional stories.
Understanding these relationships is essential for appreciating the depth and complexity of Navajo cultural practices.
Navajo Ceremonies and Spiritual Practices
Kinaaldá: The Female Puberty Ceremony
The Kinaaldá ceremony represents one of the most important rites of passage in Navajo culture, marking a young woman’s transition to adulthood and her preparation for the responsibilities of womanhood.
This multi-day ceremony combines physical challenges, spiritual instruction, and community celebration in ways that reinforce cultural values and ensure cultural continuity.
The ceremony begins when a girl experiences her first menstruation, marking her transformation from child to young woman.
During the four-day ritual, she becomes a living representation of Changing Woman, the most important female deity in Navajo tradition, taking on the power to bless others and ensure fertility and abundance.
Physical activities during Kinaaldá include daily runs that begin before dawn, with the young woman running toward the east to greet the rising sun.
These runs increase in distance each day, building strength and endurance while demonstrating dedication and commitment to traditional values.
The grinding of corn plays a central role in the ceremony, with the young woman spending hours each day traditionally grinding corn.
This activity teaches patience, persistence, and the importance of women’s roles in providing sustenance for their families and communities.
Throughout the ceremony, the young woman receives instruction from female relatives about women’s responsibilities, traditional knowledge, and proper behavior.
These teachings cover everything from practical skills to spiritual understanding and cultural values that will guide her adult life.
The ceremony concludes with the preparation and baking of a large corn cake in an earth oven, with the young woman taking primary responsibility for this complex process.
Sharing this cake with the community represents her new status as an adult woman capable of providing for others.
Yeibichai: The Night Chant Ceremony
The Yeibichai, or Night Chant ceremony, represents one of the most complex and significant healing ceremonies in Navajo tradition, typically lasting nine days and nights.
This ceremony is performed to restore harmony and health to individuals who are suffering from various ailments, particularly those involving mental or spiritual imbalance.
The ceremony involves elaborate sand paintings, sacred songs, masked dancers representing Holy People, and complex ritual actions that recreate creation stories and invoke healing powers.
The precision required for these ceremonies means that only specially trained medicine people can conduct them properly.
Sand paintings created during Yeibichai ceremonies are considered living entities that possess healing power.
These intricate designs, made from colored sand, cornmeal, and other sacred materials, must be completed and erased within a single day to maintain their spiritual effectiveness.
The masked dancers, known as Yeii, represent various Holy People and perform specific dances that tell stories and invoke healing powers.
These performances require years of training and carry significant spiritual responsibilities, as the dancers temporarily embody sacred beings.
Songs performed during the Night Chant include some of the most complex and sacred music in Navajo tradition, with hundreds of songs that must be performed in exact sequence and with perfect accuracy.
The medicine person conducting the ceremony must memorize these songs along with all the ritual actions and ceremonial knowledge required.
The ceremony serves not only healing functions but also educational purposes, as community members learn traditional stories, values, and spiritual knowledge through participation and observation.
The Night Chant represents one of the most complete expressions of Navajo spiritual and cultural traditions.
Blessingway and Enemyway Ceremonies
Blessingway (Hózhǫ́ǫ́jí) ceremonies focus on ensuring harmony, protection, and blessings for individuals and communities, while Enemyway (Anaʼí Ndááʼ) ceremonies address spiritual contamination and the restoration of balance after exposure to dangerous forces.
These ceremonies represent complementary approaches to maintaining spiritual health and community well-being.
Blessingway ceremonies are performed for various positive occasions, including pregnancies, new homes, marriages, and other life transitions that require spiritual protection and blessing.
These ceremonies emphasize preventive spiritual medicine, maintaining harmony rather than restoring it after disruption.
The ceremony often includes the creation of prayer bundles, the singing of specific blessing songs, and ritual actions designed to ensure protection and good fortune.
Participants receive spiritual strengthening that helps them maintain proper relationships with all aspects of the universe.
Enemyway ceremonies address contamination from contact with death, enemies, or other dangerous spiritual forces that can cause illness, bad dreams, or other forms of spiritual imbalance.
These ceremonies are often performed for veterans returning from military service or individuals who have been exposed to potentially harmful influences.
The Enemyway ceremony includes distinctive elements such as the “stick game,” community dancing, and specific songs designed to neutralize dangerous influences and restore spiritual protection.
The ceremony often involves multiple communities and extended family networks in the healing process.
Both types of ceremonies demonstrate the Navajo understanding that spiritual health requires active maintenance and that community support is essential for individual well-being.
These practices continue to play important roles in contemporary Navajo life, adapting to modern circumstances while maintaining traditional effectiveness.
Sand Painting and Sacred Art
Navajo sand painting represents one of the world’s most sophisticated and spiritually powerful art forms, created as part of healing ceremonies and destroyed upon completion to release their spiritual energy.
These temporary artworks combine artistic skill with deep religious knowledge and serve as focal points for ceremonial healing.
Traditional sand paintings are created by trained medicine people using colored sand, cornmeal, crushed flowers, charcoal, and other natural materials.
The designs follow precise patterns passed down through generations, with each symbol and color carrying specific spiritual significance and healing power.
The creation process requires extensive knowledge of traditional stories, ceremonial protocols, and artistic techniques that take years to master.
Medicine people must memorize hundreds of different designs along with the songs, prayers, and ritual actions that accompany their creation.
Patients sit or lie on completed sand paintings as part of the healing process, allowing the spiritual power of the designs to work on their behalf.
The sand painting serves as a portal between the human and spiritual worlds, enabling healing forces to flow from the Holy People to those in need.
The destruction of sand paintings at the end of ceremonies is as important as their creation, releasing the spiritual energy and ensuring that sacred power doesn’t become trapped in material form. The sand is typically disposed of in specific ways that return it safely to the natural world.
Contemporary Navajo artists have developed permanent sand painting techniques for sale to collectors, though these commercial works are created with different designs and lack the spiritual power of ceremonial sand paintings.
This adaptation allows the art form to continue while maintaining the sacred nature of traditional practices.
Navajo Arts and Crafts: Expressions of Culture and Beauty
Navajo Weaving and Textile Traditions
Navajo weaving represents one of North America’s most celebrated textile traditions, evolving from practical necessity to internationally recognized art form while maintaining deep cultural significance and technical excellence.
The tradition began with the adoption of sheep from Spanish colonizers but quickly developed distinctive Navajo characteristics and aesthetic principles.
Traditional Navajo weavers are typically women who learn the craft from their mothers and grandmothers, passing down not only technical skills but also cultural knowledge, traditional designs, and spiritual understanding of the weaving process. The learning process often begins in childhood and continues throughout a weaver’s lifetime.
The creation of Navajo textiles involves every step from raising sheep and processing wool to spinning yarn and creating finished rugs or blankets.
This complete involvement with the entire process reflects traditional Navajo values about self-reliance, craftsmanship, and the importance of understanding all aspects of any endeavor.
Traditional Navajo looms are simple but effective tools that allow weavers to create complex designs through careful planning and skilled execution.
The vertical loom setup requires weavers to work from bottom to top, planning the entire design in advance and making adjustments as the work progresses.
Navajo textile designs often incorporate symbolic elements related to traditional stories, clan affiliations, personal experiences, and spiritual beliefs.
While some designs have specific meanings, others are created primarily for their aesthetic appeal and the weaver’s artistic vision.
Regional weaving styles have developed in different areas of the Navajo Nation, with places like Ganado, Two Grey Hills, Crystal, and Teec Nos Pos becoming known for distinctive color schemes, design elements, and technical approaches.
These regional variations reflect local preferences while maintaining overall Navajo aesthetic principles.
Silversmithing and Jewelry Arts
Navajo silversmithing developed in the mid-19th century through contact with Mexican plateros (silversmiths), but quickly evolved into a distinctive art form that reflects Navajo aesthetic preferences, spiritual beliefs, and cultural values.
The craft combined new metalworking techniques with traditional design concepts and symbolic meanings.
Early Navajo silversmiths often worked with silver coins, melting them down to create jewelry, belt buckles, bridles, and other decorative and functional items.
The use of silver represented both artistic expression and a form of portable wealth that could be worn and traded as needed.
Traditional Navajo jewelry often incorporates turquoise, a stone that holds special spiritual significance and is believed to provide protection and connection to sky and water.
The combination of silver and turquoise creates distinctive color contrasts that have become closely associated with Southwestern jewelry traditions.
Squash blossom necklaces, concha belts, and large turquoise bracelets represent some of the most recognizable forms of Navajo jewelry, though contemporary artists have expanded the tradition to include innovative designs that maintain cultural authenticity while exploring new artistic possibilities.
The sandcasting technique, developed by Navajo silversmiths, involves creating tufa stone molds to cast silver bracelets and other jewelry items.
This technique produces distinctive textures and allows for the creation of complex three-dimensional forms that showcase the artist’s skill and creativity.
Contemporary Navajo jewelers include both traditional craftspeople working with time-honored techniques and innovative artists who incorporate modern materials and methods while maintaining connections to cultural traditions. This diversity ensures that the art form continues to evolve while preserving its essential character.
Pottery and Basketry
While Navajo pottery and basketry traditions are less well-known than weaving and silversmithing, these crafts represent important aspects of traditional material culture and continue to be practiced by contemporary artists who maintain traditional techniques and aesthetic principles.
Navajo pottery often features distinctive geometric designs and earth-tone colors that reflect the natural materials and firing techniques used in their creation.
Traditional pottery was primarily functional, used for water storage, cooking, and ceremonial purposes, though contemporary potters also create decorative pieces.
The pottery-making process involves gathering clay from specific locations, preparing it through traditional methods, forming vessels by hand, and firing them in outdoor fires that create unique color variations and surface effects. This process requires extensive knowledge of materials, techniques, and environmental factors.
Navajo basketry includes both coiled and twined techniques, with different styles used for various purposes including gathering, storage, and ceremonial functions.
Traditional baskets often feature complex geometric patterns created through the use of different colored plant materials.
Wedding baskets hold special significance in Navajo culture, used in various ceremonies and representing the cyclical nature of life and the importance of harmony and balance.
These baskets follow specific design patterns and are created with particular spiritual intentions and cultural protocols.
Contemporary basket makers face challenges in obtaining traditional materials due to environmental changes and land use restrictions, but many continue to practice the craft and pass on traditional knowledge to younger generations interested in maintaining these cultural traditions.
Navajo Food and Traditional Subsistence
The Three Sisters and Agricultural Traditions
Traditional Navajo agriculture centered around the “Three Sisters” crops—corn, beans, and squash—which provided nutritional completeness while also holding deep spiritual significance in Navajo culture and ceremony.
These crops, learned from Pueblo neighbors, became integrated into Navajo spiritual beliefs and seasonal cycles.
Corn holds particular importance in Navajo culture, serving not only as a food source but also as a sacred substance used in prayers, ceremonies, and daily blessings.
Different colors of corn—white, yellow, blue, and red—are associated with the four directions and are used in various spiritual practices.
Traditional farming methods emphasized sustainability and harmony with natural cycles, using techniques like companion planting, terracing, and seasonal rotation that maximized productivity while maintaining soil health. These practices reflect broader Navajo values about living in balance with natural systems.
The agricultural calendar influenced many aspects of traditional Navajo life, from seasonal movements and ceremonial cycles to social gatherings and community work parties.
Planting and harvest times brought families and communities together for shared labor and celebration.
Wild plant gathering complemented agricultural production, with families collecting pinon nuts, wild berries, medicinal plants, and other resources according to seasonal availability.
This knowledge required extensive understanding of local ecosystems and sustainable harvesting practices.
Contemporary Navajo agriculture faces challenges including climate change, water rights issues, and competition from industrial agriculture, but many families continue to maintain traditional gardens and participate in community-supported agriculture projects that preserve traditional knowledge and food sovereignty.
Sheep and Livestock in Navajo Culture
The introduction of sheep from Spanish colonizers transformed Navajo culture in profound ways, providing wool for weaving, meat for sustenance, and a form of wealth that could be accumulated and inherited. Sheep became so central to Navajo life that they are now considered part of traditional culture despite their relatively recent introduction.
Traditional Navajo sheep herding involved entire families in the care and management of flocks, with children learning responsibility and traditional knowledge through participation in daily herding activities.
The seasonal movement of sheep to different grazing areas required extensive knowledge of local geography and resource management.
Mutton became a central part of traditional Navajo diet, prepared in various ways including roasting, stewing, and making into jerky for preservation.
The ability to process and preserve meat was essential for survival in the challenging Southwestern environment.
The wool from Navajo sheep provided the raw material for the textile tradition that became one of the most celebrated aspects of Navajo culture.
Different types of sheep produced wool with varying characteristics, and knowledgeable herders developed flocks that produced wool particularly suited for weaving.
Stock reduction programs imposed by the federal government in the 1930s devastated many Navajo families by forcing the sale or slaughter of “excess” livestock, disrupting traditional economic systems and causing lasting trauma in many communities.
This experience remains a painful memory that influences contemporary attitudes toward federal land management policies.
Contemporary sheep herding continues among some Navajo families, though modern economic pressures and lifestyle changes have reduced the number of people involved in traditional livestock management.
Some young Navajo people are working to revive traditional herding practices as part of cultural preservation efforts.
Traditional Foods and Modern Adaptations
Traditional Navajo cuisine emphasized foods that could be preserved for long periods and prepared with minimal resources, reflecting the semi-nomadic lifestyle and the challenges of living in arid environments.
Many traditional foods remain popular today and are experiencing renewed interest as part of cultural preservation efforts.
Frybread, perhaps the most widely recognized “traditional” Navajo food, actually developed during the period of internment at Bosque Redondo when families were forced to make do with government commodity foods including white flour, processed meat, and lard. While popular today, frybread represents adaptation to historical trauma rather than ancient tradition.
Blue corn mush, various forms of cornbread, and roasted corn represent more authentic traditional foods that connected Navajo people to their agricultural heritage and spiritual beliefs. These foods were often prepared for ceremonial occasions and continue to hold cultural significance.
Traditional preservation methods included drying meat into jerky, grinding corn into meal that could be stored for months, and processing wild plants into forms that could be kept through winter months. These techniques ensured food security in an unpredictable environment.
Contemporary Navajo communities are working to address health issues including diabetes and obesity that have resulted partly from the shift away from traditional foods toward processed foods. Traditional foods revival programs combine cultural preservation with health promotion.
Navajo Nation agricultural programs encourage the production of traditional crops and livestock while also promoting modern farming techniques that can improve food security and economic opportunities for tribal members.
Navajo Governance and Modern Political Structure
Traditional Governance and Leadership
Traditional Navajo governance operated through consensual decision-making processes that emphasized discussion, consultation with elders, and the achievement of harmony rather than majority rule or hierarchical authority.
Leadership roles were often situational, with different individuals taking responsibility based on their knowledge, experience, and the specific needs of each situation.
The Naataanii system provided a framework for local leadership, with respected individuals serving as spokespeople and mediators for extended family groups and local communities.
These leaders gained their positions through demonstrated wisdom, spiritual knowledge, and ability to maintain harmony within their groups.
Decision-making processes emphasized the importance of considering impacts on future generations, with major choices evaluated based on their long-term consequences for community well-being. This approach reflected traditional values about responsibility and the interconnectedness of all life.
Conflict resolution traditionally occurred through family and clan networks, with disputes addressed through discussion, compensation, and ceremonial healing rather than punishment.
The goal was to restore harmony and proper relationships rather than to determine guilt or assign blame.
Women often held significant influence in traditional governance, particularly in matters related to family welfare, resource allocation, and the selection of leaders.
The matrilineal clan system provided women with important decision-making authority that complemented men’s roles in external relations and ceremonial leadership.
Traditional law emphasized restoration rather than retribution, with justice achieved through processes that healed relationships and restored social harmony.
These approaches continue to influence contemporary Navajo Nation legal systems and dispute resolution programs.
Modern Navajo Nation Government
The modern Navajo Nation government operates as a sovereign entity within the United States, with a three-branch system that includes executive, legislative, and judicial components.
This structure reflects both federal requirements and traditional Navajo values about balanced authority and consensual decision-making.
The Navajo Nation President serves as the chief executive, elected every four years by tribal members.
The president is responsible for implementing tribal laws, managing government operations, and representing the Navajo Nation in relations with federal, state, and local governments.
The Navajo Nation Council consists of 24 delegates representing different regions of the reservation, with delegates elected for four-year terms.
The council functions as the legislative branch, enacting laws, approving budgets, and providing oversight of executive branch activities.
The Navajo Nation Supreme Court and lower tribal courts handle civil and criminal matters under tribal jurisdiction, applying both tribal law and federal Indian law.
The court system incorporates traditional Navajo legal concepts while meeting requirements for federal recognition and cooperation.
The Navajo Nation government provides services including education, healthcare, social services, law enforcement, and economic development programs.
These services often supplement federal programs while addressing specific needs of Navajo communities.
Tribal sovereignty allows the Navajo Nation to exercise considerable self-governance authority, including the power to tax, regulate commerce, and enter into agreements with other governments.
This sovereignty is limited by federal law but provides important opportunities for self-determination.
Contemporary Challenges and Initiatives
Economic development remains a central challenge for the Navajo Nation, with high unemployment rates and limited economic opportunities affecting many communities.
The tribal government pursues various strategies including natural resource development, tourism promotion, and business development programs.
Education issues include improving schools on the reservation, increasing high school graduation rates, and ensuring that young Navajos have access to both quality contemporary education and traditional cultural knowledge. Language preservation efforts are integrated into many educational initiatives.
Healthcare challenges include addressing health disparities, improving access to medical services in remote areas, and integrating traditional healing practices with modern medical care.
The Indian Health Service provides basic healthcare, but additional resources are needed to address community health needs.
Infrastructure development includes improving roads, expanding broadband internet access, and upgrading utilities to support economic development and improve quality of life in Navajo communities. Geographic isolation and difficult terrain make infrastructure development particularly challenging.
Environmental issues include addressing the legacy of uranium mining, protecting sacred sites from development pressures, and managing natural resources in ways that balance economic needs with environmental protection and cultural values.
Cultural preservation efforts include language revitalization programs, traditional arts education, and the documentation of elder knowledge. These initiatives work to ensure that traditional culture continues to thrive while adapting to contemporary circumstances.
Contemporary Navajo Life and Cultural Preservation
Balancing Tradition and Modernity
Contemporary Navajo life involves complex negotiations between traditional cultural values and modern American society, with individuals and families finding diverse ways to maintain cultural identity while participating in contemporary economic and social systems. This balance varies significantly among different families and communities.
Many Navajo families maintain traditional practices including clan relationships, ceremonial participation, and cultural observances while also embracing modern education, technology, and economic opportunities.
This selective adaptation allows for cultural continuity while enabling participation in broader American society.
Language use patterns reflect these negotiations, with many families using Navajo for traditional activities and English for school, work, and interaction with non-Navajo institutions. Code-switching between languages often occurs naturally based on context and audience.
Religious practices may combine traditional Navajo spirituality with Christianity or other faiths, creating syncretic belief systems that address contemporary spiritual needs while maintaining connections to ancestral wisdom. These combinations reflect historical missionary influence and ongoing spiritual seeking.
Educational choices include decisions about tribal schools versus public schools, traditional cultural education versus standard academic curricula, and college education versus immediate workforce participation. These choices affect both individual opportunities and cultural transmission patterns.
Geographic mobility involves complex decisions about remaining on the reservation versus seeking opportunities in urban areas, with many Navajo people maintaining connections to both reservation communities and urban Native American populations.
Cultural Preservation Efforts and Programs
Language revitalization initiatives include immersion schools, adult education programs, digital language resources, and family language preservation projects.
These efforts address the reality that many young Navajos have limited fluency in Diné bizaad while working to create new opportunities for language learning and use.
Traditional arts programs provide instruction in weaving, silversmithing, pottery, and other cultural arts while also creating economic opportunities for artists and cultural practitioners.
These programs often combine traditional knowledge with contemporary marketing and business skills.
Ceremonial knowledge preservation involves working with traditional practitioners to document and transmit spiritual knowledge while respecting protocols about sacred information that should not be publicly shared. This work requires a careful balance between preservation and cultural protection.
Educational curricula increasingly incorporate Navajo history, culture, and traditional knowledge into standard academic programs, providing opportunities for young Navajos to learn about their heritage while acquiring conventional academic skills.
Cultural centers and museums serve as repositories for traditional knowledge and objects while also providing educational programming for both Navajo and non-Navajo audiences. These institutions play important roles in cultural preservation and public education.
Community-based programs often combine cultural preservation with social services, using traditional values and practices to address contemporary challenges including substance abuse, family dysfunction, and youth alienation.
Economic Development and Challenges
Natural resource development continues to provide significant revenue for the Navajo Nation through coal mining, oil and gas extraction, and renewable energy projects.
However, these activities also raise environmental concerns and questions about long-term sustainability.
Tourism development capitalizes on visitor interest in Navajo culture and the scenic beauty of the reservation, providing economic opportunities while raising questions about cultural commodification and environmental impact. Tribal tourism enterprises work to balance economic benefits with cultural integrity.
Small business development includes both traditional enterprises like arts and crafts production and modern businesses including retail, services, and technology companies.
Tribal economic development programs provide support for Navajo entrepreneurs while addressing challenges including limited access to capital and markets.
Gaming enterprises provide revenue for tribal government operations and community services while also creating employment opportunities for tribal members.
The Navajo Nation was initially reluctant to embrace gaming but eventually developed several casino operations.
Agriculture and livestock development programs work to revive traditional food production while also exploring opportunities for commercial agriculture and ranching. These efforts address both economic needs and cultural preservation goals.
Education and workforce development programs prepare young Navajos for contemporary employment opportunities while also providing training in traditional skills and cultural knowledge.
These programs aim to create economic opportunities that allow people to remain in their home communities.
Frequently Asked Questions About the Navajo Nation
Where is the Navajo Nation located and how large is it?
The Navajo Nation encompasses approximately 27,413 square miles across northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, southeastern Utah, and southwestern Colorado in the Four Corners region of the American Southwest.
This makes it larger than ten U.S. states and represents the largest land area held by any Native American tribe.
The reservation boundaries are defined by treaties, congressional acts, and executive orders dating back to the Treaty of 1868, though the current reservation is significantly smaller than the traditional Navajo homeland that extended between the four sacred mountains. The Nation includes over 100 communities ranging from small family settlements to larger towns.
The diverse landscape includes high mesas, deep canyons, desert areas, pine forests, and mountain ranges, creating varied ecosystems that have supported different aspects of traditional Navajo life. Major landmarks include Canyon de Chelly, Monument Valley, and portions of the Painted Desert.
The tribal capital is located at Window Rock, Arizona, named for the distinctive rock formation that serves as a natural amphitheater.
Other major communities include Shiprock, New Mexico; Chinle, Arizona; and Kayenta, Arizona, each serving as regional centers for government services and economic activity.
What is the significance of the four sacred mountains?
The four sacred mountains—Sisnaajini (Blanca Peak), Tsoodzil (Mount Taylor), Dook’o’oosłííd (San Francisco Peaks), and Dibé Nitsaa (Hesperus Peak)—define the boundaries of the traditional Navajo homeland and serve as spiritual anchors that provide protection and guidance according to traditional beliefs.
Each mountain is associated with specific directions, colors, sacred stones, and spiritual significance that influences everything from hogan construction and ceremonial practices to artistic designs and daily prayers.
The mountains are considered living entities that house Holy People and provide spiritual protection for the Navajo people.
The east mountain (Sisnaajini) represents new beginnings and is associated with white shell and dawn light.
The south mountain (Tsoodzil) represents strength and maturity and is connected with turquoise. The west mountain (Dook’o’oosłííd) represents wisdom and completion and is associated with abalone shell. The north mountain (Dibé Nitsaa) represents spiritual knowledge and is connected with jet black.
Traditional Navajo prayers often begin by acknowledging the four sacred mountains and asking for their continued protection and guidance.
Many ceremonies include references to the mountains, and traditional stories explain how the Holy People placed these mountains to provide boundaries and protection for the Diné homeland.
The mountains continue to hold religious and cultural significance for contemporary Navajos, though access to some sacred sites has been complicated by the fact that portions of the mountains lie outside current reservation boundaries on federal and private lands.
Can non-Navajo people visit Navajo lands?
Visitors are welcome on many parts of the Navajo Nation, though certain areas require permits or have restrictions to protect cultural resources and sacred sites.
The tribal government operates several tourism enterprises while also maintaining policies that ensure respectful visitation and cultural protection.
Major tourist destinations include Monument Valley Navajo Tribal Park, Canyon de Chelly National Monument (operated jointly with the National Park Service), and various cultural centers and museums that provide educational programming about Navajo history and culture.
Guided tours led by Navajo tour operators provide opportunities to learn about the landscape, history, and culture from knowledgeable local guides while ensuring that tourism benefits tribal members and respects cultural protocols.
These tours often include traditional stories and cultural information not available through other sources.
Visitors should be aware that the Navajo Nation observes daylight saving time (unlike the rest of Arizona) and that alcohol sales and possession are prohibited throughout the reservation. Photography restrictions may apply at certain locations, and visitors should always ask permission before photographing people.
Respectful behavior includes staying on designated roads and trails, not disturbing cultural or natural resources, and being sensitive to the fact that people live and work throughout the reservation.
Many areas that appear empty to visitors are actually grazing areas, sacred sites, or otherwise significant to local communities.
How can the Navajo language be preserved and revitalized?
Language preservation efforts require community-wide commitment involving families, schools, tribal government, and various organizations working together to create opportunities for language learning, use, and transmission to younger generations.
Immersion education programs provide some of the most effective language learning opportunities, with several schools on the Navajo Nation offering instruction primarily in Navajo while also teaching English and standard academic subjects. These programs help create new generations of fluent speakers.
Family-based language transmission remains crucial, with programs that support parents and grandparents in speaking Navajo with children and providing resources for home language use.
Community language classes and conversation groups provide additional learning opportunities for people of all ages.
Technology initiatives include online dictionaries, language learning apps, social media content in Navajo, and digital archives of traditional stories and songs.
Radio programming in Navajo provides daily exposure to the language and creates contexts for contemporary language use.
Documentation projects work with fluent speakers to record traditional stories, ceremonial knowledge (when appropriate), and everyday conversation to preserve linguistic knowledge for future generations.
These efforts require careful balance between preservation and respect for cultural protocols about sacred knowledge.
Policy support from the Navajo Nation government includes requirements for Navajo language instruction in tribal schools, support for media programming in Navajo, and funding for various language preservation initiatives. Federal and foundation grants also support language revitalization efforts.
Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of the Diné
The Navajo Nation represents one of North America’s most remarkable examples of cultural resilience, adaptation, and continuity in the face of tremendous historical challenges and ongoing contemporary pressures.
From their ancient origins as Athabaskan migrants to their current status as the largest federally recognized tribe in the United States, the Diné have consistently demonstrated their ability to adapt to changing circumstances while maintaining their essential cultural identity and spiritual connection to their ancestral homeland.
The story of the Navajo people encompasses both tremendous hardships—including the trauma of the Long Walk and forced assimilation policies—and remarkable achievements, from the development of world-renowned artistic traditions to the crucial contributions of the Code Talkers during World War II.
These experiences have shaped contemporary Navajo identity while providing lessons about survival, adaptation, and the importance of cultural preservation.
Understanding Navajo culture requires appreciating both its ancient foundations and its dynamic contemporary expressions.
Traditional concepts like Hózhǫ́ continue to guide daily life and decision-making, while modern institutions including tribal government, educational systems, and economic enterprises reflect adaptations to contemporary circumstances that maintain core cultural values.
The preservation of Diné bizaad, traditional arts, ceremonial knowledge, and cultural practices depends on ongoing efforts by community members, educators, artists, and cultural practitioners who understand that culture remains alive only through active participation and transmission to younger generations.
These preservation efforts balance respect for traditional knowledge with the need to adapt to contemporary realities.
Contemporary challenges facing the Navajo Nation—including economic development, educational improvement, healthcare access, and environmental protection—require solutions that honor traditional values while embracing beneficial innovations.
The tribal government and community organizations continue to develop approaches that maintain cultural integrity while addressing modern needs.
The broader significance of Navajo culture extends beyond the boundaries of the reservation to provide insights about sustainable living, cultural preservation, artistic excellence, and the possibilities for maintaining indigenous identity within contemporary society.
The Navajo experience offers valuable lessons about resilience, adaptation, and the importance of maintaining connections to land, language, and traditional knowledge.
For visitors, students, and others seeking to understand Navajo culture, the key is approaching this rich heritage with respect, humility, and recognition that they are engaging with a living culture rather than historical artifacts.
The Navajo people continue to evolve their traditions while maintaining essential connections to ancestral wisdom and homeland.
The future of the Navajo Nation depends on the continued commitment of tribal members to preserve their language, traditions, and cultural values while also preparing young people for success in contemporary society.
This balance between tradition and innovation has characterized Navajo culture throughout its history and continues to guide their approach to future challenges and opportunities.
As the largest and one of the most culturally vibrant Native American nations, the Diné serve as examples of how indigenous peoples can maintain their distinctive identities while participating fully in contemporary society.
Their ongoing journey provides inspiration and guidance for other indigenous peoples while enriching the broader American cultural landscape through their contributions to art, language, spirituality, and traditional knowledge.
The enduring legacy of the Navajo people lies not only in their historical achievements but in their continued vitality as a living culture that adapts to changing circumstances while maintaining its essential character.
The four sacred mountains continue to define their homeland, the Navajo language continues to carry ancient wisdom, and traditional ceremonies continue to provide healing and spiritual guidance for new generations of Diné people who walk in beauty between the earth and sky.
Sources:
Encyclopedia Britannica – Navajo People
Navajo Nation Government History
Discover Navajo – Navajo Culture Portal
Wikipedia – Navajo
